Research, higher education and the quality of teaching

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
Research, higher education and the quality of teaching: Inquiry in a Japanese academic context
Fatima H. Eid Higher Education Council, Kingdom of Bahrain ABSTRACT Higher education plays an essential role in society by creating new knowledge, transmitting it to students and fostering innovation. Research-based education has lately received increasing interest both among researchers in higher education and in public discussion. The aim of this paper is to develop a thorough understanding of teacher education reform in Japan and its relation to the research development process. To identify whether Japanese teachers are equipped with the conceptual understanding and methodological skills to conduct research, field visits are carried out to some schools and higher education institutions; some content analysis of materials related to their Teacher Education Programs are conducted; twenty-five people (ten professionals, professors, and policy makers, five teachers, and ten students) are interviewed. Quantitative survey data as well as in-depth qualitative data are collected from survey questionnaires and semi-structured interviews over a period of two months. This research attempts to discuss the research policies, strategies and practices in graduate schools of teacher education and the contributions of research in developing high quality teaching. Findings of this research is expected to make research-informed contributions to contemporary issues, initiatives and reforms in Japanese higher education, and will at least serve to initiate a debate about research-based teacher education and contribute to the decisions that need to be made regarding the future of higher education in Japan. Keywords: Research-based education, Teacher Education, Higher Education, Quality of Teaching, Education Reform.
Copyright statement - Authors retain the copyright to the manuscripts published in AABRI journals. Please see the AABRI Copyright Policy at http://www.aabri.com/copyright.html.
Research, higher education, page 1

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
INTRODUCTION
Higher education plays an essential role in society by creating new knowledge, transmitting it to students and fostering innovation. Quality teaching in higher education matters for student learning outcomes. But fostering quality teaching needs higher education institutions to ensure that the education they offer meets the expectations of students and the requirements of employers, both today and for the future (Hénard and Roseveare 2012).
In the last two decades, a great deal of attention has been directed towards developing research in teacher education all over the world. Teacher education is clearly an essential element for the improvement of education by producing highly qualified teachers. Many countries identify the production of “high quality teachers" as the goal and focus of their teacher education programs.
A primary goal of all teacher educators is to provide pre-service teachers with meaningful professional development opportunities that will help them succeed in making the transition into their own classrooms (Diana, T. J. 2013). In most of the developed countries, teacher education has moved from training teachers to transfer knowledge and preparing them to practice a new role of producing knowledge (Stewart, 2011). In other words, in the process of becoming and being a teacher, doing a teacher research not only promote reflection about personal performance in the classroom, but also seem to stimulate a valued process of self-assessment, in challenging future teachers to identify their personal strengths and weaknesses. Thus, in order to help teachers practice this advanced role, teacher education should equip teachers with self-evaluation and problem-solving skills that are based on research-oriented education.
Research in education is necessary in order to provide a basis for educational planning. It is one of the main fields that should be embedded in higher education curriculum (Niemi & Jakku-Sihvonen, 2006). With regard to this, research-based education has lately received increasing interest both among researchers in higher education and in public discussion. Through these experiences, teachers develop the requisite knowledge and skills to become effective classroom leaders capable of implementing the national reform agenda.
In the past ten years, Japan has witnessed many problems in schools. Many of these problems were attributed to a lack of competence among teachers (Hosoya and Talib, 2011) and, as a result, national advisory groups made the improvement of the teacher training the main theme for educational reform in Japan. This reform has made teacher education a national concern. As a result, research on teacher education has become one of the most important fields in education in Japan. Although many teacher preparation programs in Japan have improved in recent years, the literature suggests the need for more substantive improvements. In my opinion, a first step in the improvement process would be to record the perceptions of people engaged actively in teacher education (i.e. faculty members, deans, students, teachers, policy makers etc.). In this respect, the research project presented in this paper attempts to discuss the research policies, strategies and practices in graduate schools of teacher education in the Japanese context. Field visits were conducted during my stay in Japan to identify whether Japanese teachers are equipped with the conceptual understanding and methodological skills to conduct action research in education.
The content of this paper is organized around a number of issues that concern policymakers, educators, and researchers. These include the pedagogical approaches used in teacher education and the contributions of research in developing high quality teaching. It discusses the background of higher education reform in Japan to provide a deep insight into the state of research-based approaches in teacher education, in particular. In addition, the
Research, higher education, page 2

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
research methodology and procedures are reviewed and research findings and recommendations are discussed.
To develop a better understanding of my research area, "Research-based Approach in Teacher Education", two universities had been visited: Waseda University and Tokyo Gakugei University and carried out some content analysis of materials related to their Teacher Education Programs (curriculum, fields, courses, subjects); twenty-five people were interviewed; schools and research institutions were visited; some Japanese Higher Education specialists and policy makers have been met (i.e. representatives from Higher Education Bureau; Department of Research Planning and Development at the National Institute for Educational Policy Research of Japan – NIER; Dean of Waseda University Graduate School of Teacher Education; vice-president of Tokyo Gakugei University and Head of the planning board of Japan Association of Universities of Education, JAUE).
The findings from these field studies conducted among students, teachers, university professors, and some higher-education policy makers are reported in this paper. The findings include quantitative survey data as well as in-depth qualitative data, collected from survey questionnaires and semi-structured interviews over a period of two months. The Implications of these findings are also presented here. It is expected that the findings of this study will be used to develop the quality of teacher education in Japan, and enhance the teaching-learning practices related to research-based approaches.
To sum up, it is hoped that findings of my research will, hopefully, inform changes in methods and practices of research-informed teaching contributions to contemporary issues, initiatives and reforms in Japanese higher education institutions. In addition, I argue that this research should at least serves to initiate a debate about research-based teacher education and contributes to the decisions that need to be made regarding the future of higher education in Japan.
PART 1: BACKGROUND
Research and Educational Reform in Japan
Japanese education has been a focus of comparative studies for the past 20 years. Many scholars have attributed the economic success of this industrialized society to a highly literate and well-educated population. Recent studies, however, have tended to be more critical of the Japanese educational system, often concluding that, without major reform, the school system in Japan would be unable to meet the needs of 21st century Japan (Goodman & Phillips, 2003). Most universities in Japan are acutely aware of the need for change and a considerable national effort is being made at institutional change.
The importance attached to the role of research in Educational reform is evident in Japan. Educational research is carried out by a variety of organizations and individuals. The main research activities can be classified into those carried out by national, public and private research institutes, those carried out by academic institutions and organizations such as universities and professional associations, those that make use of Ministry of Educationdesignated schools, and those undertaken by educational practitioners in a school setting. There is also a network of 283 educational research institutes, called the “National Federation of Educational Research Institutes.” The Federation organizes annual collaborative research meetings and symposia as well as publishing educational research reports.
Regarding the links between educational research, educational reform and policy decisions, educational research in Japan constitutes an important resource for policy level decision-making in educational administration. In particular, research resources are routinely
Research, higher education, page 3

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
cited throughout debates in such state organs as the Central Council for Education and the Curriculum Council (IBE and NIER, 1995). Although research is a systematic process of collecting and analysing information to increase our understanding of a phenomenon under study, it is also basically a vehicle to produce systematic and analytical knowledge and information designed to aid the understanding of educational phenomena and the planning and practices of educational changes essential for educational reform.
Research-Based Teacher Education
It is now well established that the quality of teacher education is perhaps the most important factor for improving educational outcomes for students. Increasing academic requirements for higher levels of learning necessitate better qualified teachers. High quality teachers are described as having some combination of the following attributes: pedagogical knowledge, subject area content knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for effective teaching, strong understanding of human growth and child development, effective communication skills, strong sense of ethics, and capacity for renewal and ongoing learning (Burns 2010).
Teacher education has increasingly become the remit of degree-granting colleges or universities; the duration of training has increased; and the teaching practices have become increasingly important. Traditionally, teachers had been taught in normal schools of education; however, in 2008, one of the teacher education reform initiatives in Japan was the establishment of the "Graduate Schools of Teacher Education." These are now twenty-five Graduate Schools of Teacher Education set up in universities with teaching training programs. It is worth noting that the teaching training programs vary in content from one university to another. These newly-established universities of teacher education were designed as "universities for an exclusive purpose of in-service teacher education, and conducting research at high level, which have faculties in which school teachers are trained" (Tanaka, 2011). Further pursuits of quality education were called for and that the better qualified teachers were needed. There has been a demand for better teacher education to improve teachers' qualifications, and calls for better education at graduate schools.
Qualifications for on entry into a teacher education program vary considerably, and most countries have multiple entry points into the field of teaching. Entry varies by type of preparing institution and by the school level for which candidates plan to teach whether elementary or secondary. In Japan, the main entry requirement is that students already have a bachelor's degree. These graduate teaching programs are usually one to two years in length and students receive postgraduate diplomas in teaching or a master's degree. Most of the graduate schools of teacher education in Japan do not require any research thesis. In this regard, students learn about research only through elective subjects and/or through the various subjects they have undertaken through their study. At the graduate schools, research skills are mainly learnt by students through self-study and there is little attempt to develop research skills explicitly through required research skills subjects etc.
In teacher education programs, research-based approaches have lately received increasing interest both among researchers of teacher education and in public discussion. This is based on the notion that the knowledge base of the study program is dynamic and that student teachers are active processors of knowledge (Zeichner & Conklin, 2005). The idea is to integrate the theoretical aspects with practice during their studies, and that research-based thinking is viewed as the connecting factor in this process. In this respect, and for the purpose of my research project, the concept of research-based teacher education refers to university teaching that is based on a piece of research work that can be done by teachers to enhance
Research, higher education, page 4

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
their experiences and pedagogical thinking. Identifying pedagogical elements and asking pedagogically meaningful questions in educational situations are among the most important skills a future teacher needs.
To conclude, the research-based approach aims to develop inquiry-oriented future teachers and that through research one gains results and evidence, which can be used as guidelines for further development of teacher education.
PART II: THE RESEARCH PROJECT
Research Design
The study presented here was a part of a wider research project, which aimed to gain a greater understanding of the characteristics of research-based approaches in Japanese teacher education programs and this was investigated from various different viewpoints.
Title
The Research project was entitled “Research-based Approach in Teacher Education: A Comprehensive Field Study in a Japanese Context."
Aims and Objectives
The main objective of this research project was to develop a thorough understanding of Teacher Education reform in Japan and its relation to the research development process. A comprehensive field study on action research in teacher education was carried out to find out whether teachers in Japan are equipped with the conceptual understanding and methodological skills to conduct action research in education.
Research Questions
The study examines: 1. How much do educators, policy-makers and teachers understand and appreciate the
research-based approach in teacher education? 2. How action research is experienced by teachers in their higher education studies? 3. What courses/subjects related to research methodology and practice are undertaken by
teachers during their studies? 4. How do teachers perceive their education and their role in relation to action research? 5. What policies and/or actions are undertaken to promote research in Teacher Education?
Research Methods
A mixed methods approach was adopted. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected through surveys and interviews. A content analysis of teacher-education program was conducted for two universities. In addition, a sample of university professors, students and teachers were surveyed and interviewed to gain a fuller understanding of the teacher education programs and their relation to action research. In addition, field visits were made to universities, schools, and higher education institutions. Professionals and policymakers were also visited and interviewed.
Research, higher education, page 5

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
Data Analysis
The quantitative data obtained from survey-questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS software to generate descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, and standard deviations). Additionally, the qualitative data gathered through interviews was analyzed using a content analysis approach, which involved coding and categorizing the data to look for dominant themes, and counting frequencies of occurrence (of ideas, themes, and words).
Need and Importance
Nowadays, in many countries, there is great interest in promoting action research in the teacher education curriculum (Burns, 2010). Action research is a problem-solving and self-evaluation tool, which can help teachers to improve the quality of their teaching skills and practice.
In teacher education, action research methodology offers a systematic approach to introducing innovations in teaching and learning. It seeks to do this by putting the teacher in the dual role of producer of educational theory, and user of that theory. This is both a way of producing knowledge about higher-education teaching and learning, and a powerful way of improving teaching and learning practice (Burns, 2010). No separation needs to be made between the design and delivery of teaching, and the process of researching these activities, thereby, bringing theory and practice closer together. In this research methodology, teachers conduct research, create a study, collect data and analyze the results to improve the quality of teaching and student achievement in the schools where they work. In this respect, action research can provide opportunities for reflection, improvement, and transformation of teaching.
It is common knowledge that teachers face many problems while teaching, such as problems relating to the school program, the subject specialism, the class environment, the teaching strategies, and students’ achievement. Teachers, interestingly, can conduct their own research on different instructional topics. On the individual level, teachers typically formulate a research question or topic based on the day-to-day challenges of their classroom. This may focus on grade level curriculum instructional materials, teaching practices, assessment or learning styles. Conducting action research can greatly impact on a teacher's ability to effectively implement instruction. Topics that may be considered by teachers in the individual level are: the student's success, classroom behaviors or even curricular practices and lesson planning. At the collaborative level, teachers interested in working with other educators to conduct action research may consider themes that may encompass broader issues that affect several teachers. Some action research topics may include school-wide research efforts (Burns, 2010). Instead of simply relying on an individual teacher or a few teachers grouped together, this type of action research looks at issues that relate to the school as a whole. Specific topics or areas of interest may be organizational structure, testing practices, grading issues, parental involvement or curricular integration.
Based on the above, I believe that teachers should be equipped with the skills and the methodological practice of action research for two reasons: First, by conducting action research, teachers can improve their teaching practices, solve their problems and evaluate their teaching performance. Second, teacher-researchers can develop their students’ research skills and practices, and should be better able to evaluate their students’ research projects. Hence, action research is a problem-solving and self-evaluation tool that can be widely applied in the educational field to help to improve the teaching quality and practices. According to this view, teachers, as action researchers, are critical in the sense that they not
Research, higher education, page 6

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
only look for ways to improve their practice within the various constraints of the situation in which they are working, but are also critical change agents for those constraints, and of themselves.
PART III: DATA ANALYSIS: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
To develop a better understanding of my research area, part of my research involved discussions with Japanese higher-education specialists and policy makers. Interviews were conducted to the following: (1) Representatives from the Higher Education Bureau at the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology - MEXT; (2) The Senior Researcher of the Department of Research Planning and Development at the National Institute for Educational Policy Research of Japan – NIER; (3) The Dean of Waseda University Graduate School of Teacher Education; (4) The Vice-president of Tokyo Gakugei University and Head of the planning board of Japan Association of Universities of Education, JAUE.
Qualitative Data: Findings from Interviews and Observations
Higher Education Bureau
The Higher Education Bureau promotes the quality of higher education, and supports university education reform. The main mission of the Higher Education Bureau is to enhance teachers' skills of teaching and to provide excellence in teacher training. On an interview with some of the representatives from Higher Education Bureau, I met  Deputy Director, Office for Teacher Training Planning, University Promotion Division,
Higher Education Bureau;  Deputy Director, Office for International Planning, Higher Education Policy Planning
Division, Higher Education Bureau;  Deputy Director, Educational Personnel Division, Elementary and Secondary Education
Bureau. The aims of this interview were: firstly, to investigate the efforts made for promoting
the quality of higher-education programs, in general, and teacher education program, in particular; secondly, to discuss the research-based approach in teacher education curriculum; and thirdly, to investigate the future plans/projects to enhance research in education both nationally and internationally.
To promote the quality of higher education in national and public universities, MEXT has been working on the following themes: to create a relationship between all stages of education from kindergarten to senior high school; to enhance lifelong education, science education and teacher education; to reinforce the quality of teaching. The Higher Education Bureau also supports university education reform, particularly the reform of teacher education. In relation to this, interviewees noted that they support the universities financially, and they assist their progress through evaluation. A Research-based education is one of the main approaches that should be considered in higher-education curriculum. This approach has a big role in developing the quality of teaching. However, in Japan, research-based approaches are not commonly found in the teacher education curriculum, as one of the interviewees noted, “We do think of research-based approaches, but we don’t include it into the curriculum.”
As discussed above interest in educational research has increased greatly in recent years especially in teacher education. However, the Higher Education Bureau specialists
Research, higher education, page 7

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
revealed that they had no interest in promoting research in education for undergraduate and graduate schools of teacher education, and had no intention of teaching it as a compulsory subject. This can be inferred from the following comment by one of the interviewees “Through learning different subjects and practical education, students can learn about research.”
As has been noted above, research methodology has not been taught in most university education, and on the occasions it has been taught, it has been taught as an elective (not a compulsory subject) especially in teacher education. One of the interviewees noted that “universities are responsible for promoting research in education.” In Japan, there has been a great interest in developing research in science and technology, but there has been a lack of interest for developing research in education. The reason for this, as one higher-education specialists mentioned, was that: “In science and technology, it is rather easy to support their research because they ask us to buy some instruments and materials so their goals are visible. While in education research, however, the goals are rather invisible.”
As the Higher Education Bureau provides support for the improvement of the quality of graduate education, and now there were teachers who were master degree holders, "they did not get the chance to practice researching," as the interviewees assured. Many studies have provided evidence that there is a relationship between research and the quality of teaching, and the interviewees from the Higher Education Bureau realized that action research was needed in the teacher education curriculum. In relation to this, one of the interviewees stated “It is very important that teachers conduct research while teaching.” However, ironically, when they were asked if they had any intention to enhance research in higher-education institutions, they answered “No.”
As discussed above, the Higher Education Bureau has been actively working to set up research centers that could meet the highest international standards, but there are no apparent future plans or projects to establish research centers in graduate schools of teacher education. When asked directly about this, one of the interviewees stated “No, there is no such plan.”
National Institute for Educational Policy Research of Japan - NIER
Within the National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER), the Department of Research Planning and Development is responsible for promoting research in education. This department plans, coordinates and carries out research projects that contribute to Japan's education policy. At NIER, research is undertaken in relation to issues that affect government policy. Project research is conducted by project teams formed of a wide range of researchers from both NIER and outside institutions. As part of my research, I interviewed the Senior Researcher in the Department of Research Planning and Development at NIER. The interview aims to determine NIER's policy and plans regarding research in education, to investigate the place of research in educational planning and to investigate the research plans and projects related to promoting action research in teacher education in particular. The interview revealed the following findings:
NIER had identified six mid-term goals/projects, which were supposed to be carried out in the six years from April 1, 2011 to March 31, 2016. Among these goals, NIER is planning to evaluate teacher education programs. The Senior Researcher revealed that Teacher Education had been considered in NIER's goals and plans for the first time this fiscal year. This meant that teacher education, accordingly, had been explicitly considered in NEIR's policy and practice only very recently. Furthermore, in recent years there had been renewed interest in international collaborative research, including research projects on
Research, higher education, page 8

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
contemporary issues in education. Many different kinds of long-term research themes were being studied in connection with future educational policy-making at the national level. In the case of NIER, these were classified into special research, policy-oriented research and commissioned research. In addition to the above, the Ministry of Education had designated some specified schools as being suitable for research aimed at contributing to the improvement of the existing education system. In addition, the Ministry of education had developed a system of pilot schools, which were to facilitate the development of new curricula and new teaching methods designed to meet the varied demands on school education that were the result of rapid and radical changes in society in recent years.
Regarding the teacher education curriculum, the Senior Researcher stated that universities were provided, by the Ministry of Education, with the layout of the program and the format of the teaching courses, while the content of each course was left to be determined by the faculty of each university. NIER were planning to study the content of the Teacher Education courses and suggest new content if necessary. NIER research projects are usually conducted by internal staff members but sometimes NIER asked university scholars to conducting research on NIER’s behalf. NIER research projects cover all levels of schooling from elementary and secondary education to higher education and lifelong learning. The Institute was formally responsible for promoting research in education. In government schools, for example, research was promoted through the school curriculum, especially through general subjects which are taught in elementary and junior high schools and called in Japanese “Sougoutekina Gakusyuno Jikan.” This subject is designed to enhance students’ ability to carry out research in different fields of study.
While discussing the importance of research for teachers, the senior researcher agreed that there was a relationship between research and the quality of teaching, and acknowledged this by saying “Now I recognize the importance of action research for teachers.” He agreed that teachers needed to carry out research while teaching. For him, research teachers would be better able to evaluate how good or bad their teaching was.
In Japan, the priority in education is to learn the main subject matter. There is too much emphasis on teaching these subjects, and research skills are taught almost as a byproduct of learning these different subjects. The senior researcher noted, "In Japan, graduate schools want students to focus on studying teaching only regardless of the usefulness of other subjects." This suggests that research education is a secondary consideration at best.
NIER is also responsible for promoting partnerships and cooperation with research institutes in Japan, particularly with local education research institutes and education centers. There was currently no collaboration or joint research projects between the research institutes in Japan and school teachers. However, there was collaboration with some university scholars. In relation to this NIER conducts some research projects with researchers from a number of universities. In his experience, the Senior Researcher thought that there was a need to develop a curriculum that was better able to cope with the requirements of the 21th century and this meant one that developed students’ ability to carry out research and to help each student develop his or her ability. He also noted that actions needed to be taken to promote research in education in teacher education.
Japan Association of Universities of Education (JAUE)
Tokyo Gakugei University (TGU)
As part of my research, I interviewed the Vice-president of Tokyo Gakugei University and Head of the Planning Board of JAUE. The aims of the interview were as
Research, higher education, page 9

Research in Higher Education Journal Volume 24 – August, 2014
follows: to gain better insights into the Teacher Education Program in Tokyo Gakugei University; to better understand the position of action research in teacher education; to better understand the plans and projects of the Japan Association of Universities of Education (JAUE) in relation to promoting action research in the graduate school of teacher education.
According to the Vice-president, the mission of the Teacher Education Program in Tokyo Gakugei University was to foster school leaders who could coordinate between teachers to develop and continuously improve elementary or lower secondary school curriculum. The Education Curriculum and course content for teacher education at the university supported this mission. In addition, the Vice-president agreed that there was a relationship between research education and the quality of teaching. In relation to this, he pointed out that the courses in the Graduate School of Teacher Education were based on problem solving approaches, self-evaluation techniques, and research methodology. He stated that,
"In Tokyo Gakugei University, there is an interest to promote research in teacher education for both undergraduate and graduate students. In this university, research education is one of the most important parts of the curriculum and teachers are trained in research methodology in each discipline." However, as in Waseda University, Tokyo Gakugei University students' are not required to submit any research thesis in order to get their master’s degree. The Vicepresident stated that every undergraduate student should get at least four units in research methodology. The courses of master’s programs at graduate school are classified into three clusters; the educational practice development cluster, the research methodology in education cluster, and the educational content cluster, of which every student must elect at least two courses from the first and second cluster. To follow the curriculum reform in teacher education program, the Vice-president presented a list of some research projects and research grants related to teacher education, such as: teacher-training institutions in other countries, teacher education curriculum model and core subjects, and teacher training for professional graduates … etc. In his opinion, it was vital to increase the university’s budget to promote research in education in general and in teacher education, in particular. The Vice-president explained that JAUE was established on November 15, 1949 by universities with a faculty or department devoted to teacher education in Japan, to improve the quality of university-based teacher education and to promote research in the field of teacher education, and, thereby, to contribute to the advancement of education in Japan, through the cooperation with the member institutions. In line with this mission, JAUE had served as a national forum for the discussion of matters that aim to improve teacher education. As explained by the Vice-president, the projects were as follows: (1) To hold the national conference of university-based teacher education providers (2) To subsidize research on university-based teacher education. (3) To plan, organize, and carry out research projects on university-based teacher education. (4) To publish the annual bulletin of JAUE; Journal of Japan Association of Universities of Education. (5) To present recommendations and suggestions on teacher education to the Ministry of Education to inform policy making. The president of JAUE is usually the chair-person of the select Committee of Educational Policy. JAUE had no role in evaluating the policies and/or programs of Teacher Education. He noted that this was done by the Institute for the Evaluation of Teacher Education, an independent organisation at Tokyo Gakugei University (TGU). Thus, to improve teacher
Research, higher education, page 10